THE HELP
AT HAND
S.G.
Friedman, PhD
© S.G. Friedman. All Rights Reserved
Published
in PsittiScene May 2002, No. 51
For many of us, there is
no more evocative symbol of the spectacular diversity of animal life on this
planet than that of Noah’s Ark. The sheer number of ways in which the species
are different from one another is truly wondrous. And, there is no greater
embodiment or proof of this diversity than that provided by the members of the
order Psittaciformes composed of more than 300 species of parrots. Parrots are
so remarkably brilliant in color and behavior one should think they merit an
ark of their own!
Yet, there is another wonder afoot in
the Kingdom Animalia perhaps less evident but equally astounding. Quite the
opposite of our enormous diversity is that which we all hold in common. What do
whales, elephants, and songbirds have in common with over 300 species of
parrots AND humans? It is the remarkable ability to learn, that is, to change
one’s behavior as a result of experience.
As
described by Paul Chance:
… Indeed,
learning may be thought of the as the crowning achievement of evolution. It is
an evolved mechanism for coping with the challenges of a changing environment.
Learning is a different sort of
mechanism from the inherited behavior we have been considering. Learning does
not give the species the tendency to behave a certain way in a particular
situation; rather, it gives the individual the tendency to modify its behavior
to suit a situation. It is evolved modifiability. Only learning enables the
individual to adapt to rapidly changing conditions. (Learning and Behavior,
1999, p.19)
The
Natural Science Approach
Learning
has been a subject of interest for millennia but it is only during the last 100
years that it has been studied using a natural science approach by behavior
scientists, often called behaviorists or behavior analysts. As with other
natural scientists such as paleontologists, astronomers and biologists, the
challenge for behaviorists is to explain phenomena by identifying the physical
events that produce it. The phenomena that behavior scientists work to explain
are learning and behavior.
The
natural science of behavior has identified many of the common processes at work
that explain how animals behave. Although complex laws of behavior continue to
be investigated, a fundamental set of learning principles emerged decades ago
which have stood the test of verifiability and utility with hundreds of species
of animals in a wide variety of settings. Thus, while animals are genetically
prepared to perform some behaviors and not others, the science of behavior has
shown that the underlying processes by which each animal learns to perform
these behaviors are the same.
For
example, birds are genetically prepared to fly and cheetahs to run; however, in
all cases, it is the experience of performing the behavior that ultimately
predicts how it will be performed next time, if at all. This is called the law
of effect, often stated as behavior is a function of its consequences. It is
the most fundamental of all the principles of behavior. In other words, animals
tend to repeat behaviors which result in desired outcomes. Of course, the
determination of what is desired belongs exclusively to each animal and may
change from one circumstance to another.
Parrots
Too
For lack
of knowledge about the fundamental principles of learning, many people are
utterly baffled by their parrots’ behavior. They describe their birds as
inscrutable creatures who behave in completely unfamiliar and therefore
unpredictable ways. However, the more one knows about the science of behavior
the more familiar parrot behavior will become. Let us apply just this one
principle we have discussed, the law of effect, and see how it improves your
ability to understand and predict parrot behavior. To this end, I introduce to
you my favorite fictitious parrot caretaker Grace and her popular parrot
Periwinkle. Notice the when-then relationship between each behavior and the
resulting consequences which highlights the functional association between
them.
1. When Peri steps onto Grace’s hand then
she returns him to his cage. Predicted future behavior (PFB): Peri, who would rather be on top of his cage than locked inside
it, will step onto Grace’s hand less often.
2. When Peri bites Grace’s hand then she puts
down the phone and turns her attention back to Peri. PFB: Peri will bite Grace’s hand more often when she is on the phone.
3. When Peri whistles and chatters softly
in his cage in the bird-room then Grace stays busy in the kitchen. PFB: Peri will whistle and chatter softly
less often when Grace is out of site.
4. When Peri uses his voice loudly then
Grace comes into his room to tell him to quiet down. PFB: Peri will use his voice loudly more often to get Grace to come
into his room.
In this
light, Peri is not inscrutable after all. Although some people might label Peri
dominant for refusing to step up, hormonal for biting, or obsessive for
preservative screaming, our analyses suggest that Peri would be more accurately
labeled an intelligent learner (with an unwitting teacher in Grace). Our
predictions of Peri’s future behavior, based on the sound application of the
law of effect, are not only reasonable but useful, as well: Each analysis
reveals a clear direction for teaching strategies to help both Grace and Peri
interact in ways more facilitative of successful companion behavior. These are
very simple examples which nonetheless represent some of the most common
problem behaviors reported by companion parrot caretakers. More complex interactions
can be broken down in much the same way.
There are many other important
principles of behavior to improve your understanding and ability to predict and
influence parrot behavior. Some of the principles clarify the function of
individuality among learners, timing, consistency and intensity of the outcome
in relation to behavior; others clarify the function of dependency between
behavior and outcomes; and, still others have to do not with the consequences
of behavior but the events that set the occasion for the behavior to occur in
the first place, known as antecedents. It is essential to have this knowledge
close at hand when working with parrots, or any other living creature. In my
opinion, the fundamental principles of behavior should be part of every grade
school science curriculum.
Teaching
Strategies
For
companion parrot caretakers, aviculturists, and conservationists alike, one of
the most important benefits of learning about learning is what this information
teaches us about teaching. Understanding the fundamental principals of learning
provides us with a core of invaluable strategies with which to teach parrots to
live successfully among humans.
There are
many well-validated teaching strategies that have resulted from the science of
behavior; however, in my opinion, the most significant contribution is the
evidence that everything which needs to be learned can be taught without the
use of physical force or coercion. To become proficient at teaching with
exclusively non-forceful methods, one only needs to learn how. Strategies such
as positive reinforcement, shaping, chaining, differential reinforcement of
alternative behaviors, time-out from positive reinforcement and extinction will
provide you with the very best tools the technology of teaching has to offer.
Learning to use these tools effectively will take time, effort and an
unwavering commitment to verifiable data as there are many more ways to misuse
these tools than to use them correctly. However, the return on these skills
once mastered will be well worth the investment.
Let’s look
back at our simple when-then examples of Grace and Periwinkle’s interactions to
see how we might use some of these tools to teach different behaviors by
strategically changing the outcomes.
1. Positive reinforcement: When Peri steps
onto Grace’s hand then she talks to him and rubs his head feathers before
returning Peri to his cage. PFB: Peri
will step onto Grace’s hand more often for praise and rubs.
2. Time Out from Positive Reinforcement:
When Peri bites Grace’s hand while she’s on the phone then Grace gently but
immediately puts him down on a nearby perch. PFB: Peri will bite Grace less often when she is on the phone to stay
closer to Grace.
3. Differential Reinforcement of
Alternative Behavior: When Peri whistles and chatters softly then Grace comes
in his room. PFB: Peri will whistle and
chatter softly more often to get Grace to come to his room.
4. Extinction: When Peri uses his voice
loudly then Grace stays busy in the kitchen. PFB: Peri will use his voice loudly less often to get Grace in his
view.
Another
important benefit of learning about learning and teaching is that you will
improve your ability to assess the veracity of others’ teaching strategies and
advice. The informed person will quickly discriminate between force and
facilitation and will know how to implement non-forceful alternatives to
produce the desired results. Even among some people whose pearls of wisdom
regarding behavior are many, the pearls are often left unstrung for lack of a
unifying set of principles from which to analyze, predict and influence the
behavior of parrots. This often results in a spray of fixes rather than the
systematic behavior intervention plans you will be prepared to implement.
Resources
There is a
voluminous literature available to help you learn how to apply the principles
of behavior and related teaching strategies to the benefit of you and your
birds. Nowadays, with the limitless information dissemination power of the
Internet, people no longer need to feel that they are strangers in a strange
land when it comes to parrot behavior or that there is a dearth of information
available to help them.
The key to
accessing this literature is to know what you are looking for. If you look for information
on the scientific analysis of parrot behavior, you are not likely to find too
many resources at this time, although there are some good ones out there, for
example, Steve Martin’s articles, many of which can be found at
www.naturalencounters.com and the comprehensive information at Bobbi Brinker’s web site.
A century is a relatively long time to
generate jargon related to the science of behavior, which sometimes makes it
confusing to know what to look for when searching for resources. For example,
the terms teaching, training, and conditioning have historically had different
shades of meaning and have too often been used to imply a ranking of the
presumed ability of the learner. That is, teachers teach children but trainers
train or condition animals. As the learning ability of non-human animals
continues to astound the rankers, such discriminations become less and less
meaningful. I myself use the word teaching to describe my work with all
learners whether they’re feathered, furred, scaled or bare-skinned.
As you
search for resources to learn about behavior, look for key words such as
behaviorism, behavior analysis, applied behavior analysis, learning theory,
learning and behavior, operant conditioning, positive reinforcement teaching
and clicker, bridge and target training – just to name a few. What you are
looking for is the basic information about the science of learning and behavior
as explained by those writers who themselves are the best teachers. This
information will come to you in many forms and related to many different
species of animals. I am absolutely confident that you will immediately
recognize the relevance to parrot behavior even when the explicit topic is the
behavior of children (Smith and Iwata, 1997), carp (Chase, 2001), or horses
(Ferguson and Rosales-Ruiz, 2001).
A wealth of valuable resources can be
found at the Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies web site. Listed below are references to
several excellent books and one magazine that have proven to be very helpful in
improving my skills with parrots:
1. Pryor, Karen. (1999). Don’t Shoot the
Dog! The New Art of Teaching and Training. Revised Edition. Bantam Publishers.
2. Chance, Paul. (1998). First Course in
Applied Behavior Analysis. Brooks/Cole Publishers.
3. Ramirez, Ken. (1999). Animal Training
Successful Animal Management Through Positive Reinforcement by Ken Ramirez.
Shedd Aquarium Publishers.
4. American Animal Trainer Magazine
5. Latham, Glen. (1990). The Power of
Positive Parenting A Positive Way to Raise Children. P&T Publishers.
Conclusion
The
purpose of this article is not to explain the principles of behavior; rather it
is to let you know about the help at hand. Scientific knowledge exists that is
clearly relevant to your interest in parrots. The common concerns that (1)
there is no scientific information to help you regarding parrot behavior, and (2)
parrots are inscrutable creatures that behave in unpredictable ways, are both
inaccurate. It is also a grave inaccuracy held by too many people, that parrots
require force or coercion to learn.
We often focus on the great diversity
among our planet’s animals. There are many amazing behaviors unique to birds in
general and parrots specifically. The more we learn about those behaviors the
better we will be able to predict and meet their needs. Such species typical
behavior includes subtle but communicative feather movements, body postures and
eye responses. At the same time, there are many important similarities common
to the members of the animal kingdom. The natural science of behavior has
demonstrated the applicability of a fundamental set of learning principles
common to us all.
From
conservation recovery efforts to keeping parrots as pets, learning plays a key
part of absolutely every single interaction we have with our birds. Gaining
expertise in this area in order to analyze behavior in terms of the fundamental
learning principles and design and implement effective, non-forceful behavior
intervention plans will greatly improve your understanding of parrot behavior
and your ability to protect and provide for these most treasured creatures.
Acknowledgement: The author wishes to
thank Ray Dorge for his lively and thought provoking debate which contributed
to this article.
References:
Chase,
A.R. (2001). Music discrimination by carp (Cyprinus carpio). Animal &
Behavior, 29 (4), 336-353.
Ferguson,
D.L. & Rosales-Ruiz, J. (2001). Loading the problem loader: The effects of
target training and shaping on trailer-loading behavior of horses. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 34 (4), 409-424.
Smith, R. G., & Iwata, B.A. (1997). Antecedent influences on behavior disorders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 343-375.